Myelitis

Paul Auwaerter, M.D.

PATHOGENS

A partial list of pathogens that may cause, either directly or post-infectious:

CLINICAL

  • Inflammation of the spinal cord, often immune-mediated. Many cases are idiopathic; infectious driver uncommon but important to recognize.
    • Often called "transverse myelitis" (TM) or the interchangeable term "myelopathy."
    • Need to define bilateral (not necessarily symmetrical) sensorimotor and autonomic spinal cord dysfunction.
    • Acute disease is defined as clinical deficits arising between 4h to 21d.
  • It may be related to infection, idiopathic or associated with existing inflammatory disease, e.g., SLE, MS, Sjögren’s, sarcoid.
    • Some conditions that may overlap or be a name used to denote a component of myelitis
      • Atopic dermatitis: rarely associated with myelitis in children.
      • Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (autoimmune, post-infectious)
      • Neuromyelitis optica (aka Devic’s disease) may be monophasic or recurrent.
        • Associated with antibodies anti-AQP4, anti-MOG and anti-NF.
  • Sx: leg weakness, sphincter dysfunction, abnormal DTRs [acutely may be absent, but hyperreflexia is the rule].
  • A sensory level helps distinguish from polio/Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS).
  • Ddx: may be confused with acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP) or GB. R/o compressive or vascular explanation, tropical spastic paraparesis (HTLV-I) or vacuolar myelopathy (HIV).

DIAGNOSIS

  • Dx: MRI with contrast.
    • Helpful also when considering the ddx with epidural abscess and intramedullary spinal cord abscess.
  • If complete transverse myelitis, obtain neuromyelitis optica (NMO)–immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies to assist in determining the cause. For complete non-infectious disease recommendations, see reference[11].
    • NMO-IgG antibodies (aquaporin-4–specific antibodies) should be considered helpful in determining increased TM recurrence risk.
    • Other immune-mediated conditions include multiple sclerosis, neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-antibody-associated diseases (MOGAD).
  • Review the pathogen list and consider ordering appropriate blood and CSF tests based on the risk profile and geography[2].
    • Perform LP, including VDRL, AFB, fungal cultures, and PCR (HSV, VZV, CMV, EBV, enterovirus).
    • Serology: HIV, RPR, HTLV1. Consider polio, West Nile virus, hepatitis C, Bartonella henselae and others if exposure risks exist.
      • If you are in an endemic region, perform Lyme serology (myelitis is rare and more common with infection from European strains of Borrelia).
    • Schistosoma: leading parasitic explanation; obtain serology or CSF/ stool O&P if exposure history exists.
  • Transverse Myelitis Consortium Working Group (TMCWG) proposed diagnostic criteria for idiopathic ATM. Patients meeting all diagnostic criteria are considered to have definite idiopathic ATM, whereas those who do not meet the MRI or CSF criteria for inflammation have possible idiopathic ATM.
  1. Clinical: bilateral sensory, motor, or autonomic dysfunction due to spinal cord process with a clearly defined sensory level that progresses to the nadir over 4 to 21 days from onset.
  2. MRI is used to eliminate structural causes.
  3. MRI evidence of gadolinium enhancement within the cord.
  4. CSF findings of pleocytosis or immunoglobulin G (IgG) index elevation.

TREATMENT

General Principles

  • Consult w/ neurology. The usual ID consult question is to r/o infectious etiology.
    • Post-infectious TM is described following viral illnesses with measles, mumps, rubella, and post-URI.
  • Cases may be para-infectious, but many are idiopathic.
  • Idiopathic/inflammatory TM may be treated with steroids, plasma exchange, or cyclophosphamide.
    • Neurosarcoidosis: myelitis may be part of the spectrum of inflammation.
  • If infection is diagnosed, consider therapy for the specific etiology (see specific Pathogen modules).
    • Corticosteroids are often considered to help quell inflammation.

Infectious-related Myelitis

  • See the pathogen-specific module for detailed therapy.
  • Common infectious etiologies are listed in the pathogen section, but almost every infection has been implicated.
    • Pathogen-specific therapy for some common etiologies is listed below.

OTHER INFORMATION

  • Polio may be similar to TM w/ flaccid paralysis but lacks sensory findings.
  • Most cases are idiopathic or inflammatory; however, they need to rule out infectious etiology, HIV or HTLV1-associated process.
  • CSF examination and PCR for viruses are helpful.
  • CMV-related myelitis (or radiculopathy) in HIV often associated w/ impressive neutrophilic CSF pleocytosis. Strong consideration should be made to initiating HAART in all HIV CMV myelitis cases.

Pathogen Specific Therapy

Pathogen

First-Line Agent

Second-Line Agent

VZV

Acyclovir 10mg/kg IV q8h x 7d (longer if immune compromised) + prednisone 60-80mg PO qday x 3-5d

HSV

Acyclovir 10mg/kg IV q8h x 7d (longer if immune compromised) + prednisone 60-80mg PO qday x 3-5d

Schistosoma

Praziquantel 60mg/kg divided in 3 doses x 1 d + steroids (prednisone 60-80mg qday then taper over 6 mos--no uniform guidelines, controversial)

CMV

Ganciclovir 5mg/kg q 12h (induction), 5mg/kg q 24h (maint) or valganciclovir

Ganciclovir 5mg/kg q 12h (induction), 5mg/kg q 24h (maint) + foscarnet 90mg/kg q12h (induction), then 90mg/kg q24h (maint)

Borrelia burgdorferi

Ceftriaxone 1-2g IV q24h x 28d

Basis for recommendation

  1. Asundi A, Cervantes-Arslanian AM, Lin NH, et al. Infectious Myelitis. Semin Neurol. 2019;39(4):472-481.  [PMID:31533188]

    Comment: This review is useful for helping sort the wide spectrum of potential infectious etiologies that may directly or immunologically cause myelitis. Workup and common pathogen-directed therapies reviewed.

References

  1. Grasso EA, Pozzilli V, Tomassini V. Transverse myelitis in children and adults. Handb Clin Neurol. 2023;196:101-117.  [PMID:37620065]

    Comment: This is a helpful review that outlines the various etiologies, including infections, toxins and non-infectious inflammatory conditions. Spine MRI and CSF analysis are key tools for securing diagnoses.

  2. Yeh EA, Yea C, Bitnun A. Infection-Related Myelopathies. Annu Rev Pathol. 2022;17:141-158.  [PMID:34637338]

    Comment: Focus may be helpful for the ID consultant. Concurrence with fever, rapidly progressive neurologic symptoms, CN involvement, and brain involvement should raise the specter of infection-based etiologies.

  3. Ahmad I, Rathore FA. Neurological manifestations and complications of COVID-19: A literature review. J Clin Neurosci. 2020;77:8-12.  [PMID:32409215]

    Comment: The novel coronavirus joins the list of potential causes of acute transverse myelitis.

  4. Deshayes S, Bonhomme J, de La Blanchardière A. Neurotoxocariasis: a systematic literature review. Infection. 2016;44(5):565-74.  [PMID:27084369]

    Comment: In this review, most patients were male (62%), with an average median age of 42. Myelitis was 60% of cases. Toxocara antibodies were found more often in the blood (99%) than CSF (93%). Steroids and albendazole for three weeks were the most used therapies, but complete remission was uncommon. Suspect if eosinophilia is seen and high CSF anti-Toxocara ab in CSF.

  5. Dalton HR, Kamar N, van Eijk JJ, et al. Hepatitis E virus and neurological injury. Nat Rev Neurol. 2016;12(2):77-85.  [PMID:26711839]

    Comment: HEV has been increasingly described as causing neurologic injury, including myelitis as well as Guillian-Barre and encephalitis as well.

  6. Garg RK, Malhotra HS, Gupta R. Spinal cord involvement in tuberculous meningitis. Spinal Cord. 2015;53(9):649-57.  [PMID:25896347]

    Comment: Spinal involvement can be seen in tuberculous radiculomyelitis, tuberculoma, myelitis, syringomyelia, vertebral bony infection, and rarely spinal tuberculous abscess. High cerebrospinal fluid protein content is often a risk factor for arachnoiditis. The most important differential diagnosis of tuberculous arachnoiditis is meningeal carcinomatosis.

  7. Bagnato F, Stern BJ. Neurosarcoidosis: diagnosis, therapy and biomarkers. Expert Rev Neurother. 2015;15(5):533-48.  [PMID:25936846]

    Comment: Sarcoid can present ~10% of the time with neurological symptoms. Myelitis is not uncommon, along with leptomeningeal enhancement and granulomatous inflammation in brain parenchyma.

  8. Arslan F, Yilmaz M, Paksoy Y, et al. Cytomegalovirus-associated transverse myelitis: a review of nine well-documented cases. Infect Dis (Lond). 2015;47(1):7-12.  [PMID:25390688]

    Comment: Review of 12 cases in world literature.

  9. Verma R, Sahu R, Holla V. Neurological manifestations of dengue infection: a review. J Neurol Sci. 2014;346(1-2):26-34.  [PMID:25220113]

    Comment: Myelitis, along with encephalitis, myelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and mononeuropathies, may be a consequence of Dengue and is increasingly recognized.

  10. Scott TF, Frohman EM, De Seze J, et al. Evidence-based guideline: clinical evaluation and treatment of transverse myelitis: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2011;77(24):2128-34.  [PMID:22156988]

    Comment: Evaluation of complete or partial TM with suggestions to obtain antibodies for neuromyelitis optica (NMO)–immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies in patients presenting with clinical acute complete transverse myelitis (ACTM) features. NMO-IgG antibodies (aquaporin-4–specific antibodies) should be considered helpful in determining increased TM recurrence risk. The guideline does not address infectious drivers.

  11. Bigi S, Aebi C, Nauer C, et al. Acute transverse myelitis in Lyme neuroborreliosis. Infection. 2010;38(5):413-6.  [PMID:20505978]

    Comment: Report of ATM in a boy of 12 from Europe. This is a rare problem due to Lyme disease. The report also highlights that the CSF/blood index may be negative early in infection, although authors do point out that recent EBV may have been a contributing cause or factor.

  12. Rafailidis PI, Mourtzoukou EG, Varbobitis IC, et al. Severe cytomegalovirus infection in apparently immunocompetent patients: a systematic review. Virol J. 2008;5:47.  [PMID:18371229]

    Comment: A review of 290 patients in 89 articles notes that the GI and CNS are the most common sites of active infection, including transverse myelitis.

  13. Baylor P, Garoufi A, Karpathios T, et al. Transverse myelitis in 2 patients with Bartonella henselae infection (cat scratch disease). Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(4):e42-5.  [PMID:17638185]

    Comment: Cases described in an adolescent and a 46-year-old adult. Six cases were previously described in the literature. The mechanism is unclear, as is the case with the much more common bartonella encephalitis/encephalopathy occurring in acute infection.

  14. van Baalen A, Muhle H, Straube T, et al. Nonparalytic poliomyelitis in Lyme borreliosis. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(8):660.  [PMID:16861483]

    Comment: Case study with images. Pt with Garin-Bujadoux-Bannwarth syndrome and myelitis with strong serological responses to Borrelia. Symptoms resolved with two weeks of cefotaxime therapy.

  15. de Seze J, Lanctin C, Lebrun C, et al. Idiopathic acute transverse myelitis: application of the recent diagnostic criteria. Neurology. 2005;65(12):1950-3.  [PMID:16380618]

    Comment: With improved diagnostic techniques, including PCR, the number of "idiopathic" cases may decrease compared to historical series. This study of 288 patients identified 15.6% as idiopathic.
    Rating: Important

  16. Di Rocco A. Diseases of the spinal cord in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Semin Neurol. 1999;19(2):151-5.  [PMID:10718535]

    Comment: Reasonable review of processes in the HIV setting. Vacuolar myelopathy is the most common condition. Vacuolar myelopathy usually presents with slowly progressing spastic paraparesis, accompanied by loss of vibratory and position sense and urinary frequency and urgency (and erectile dysfunction in men). There are other rarer causes of spinal cord disease in AIDS, including several infectious myelitis and neoplastic and vascular myelopathies.
    Rating: Important

  17. Jeffery DR, Mandler RN, Davis LE. Transverse myelitis. Retrospective analysis of 33 cases, with differentiation of cases associated with multiple sclerosis and parainfectious events. Arch Neurol. 1993;50(5):532-5.  [PMID:8489410]

    Comment: Small series with 45% of cases categorized as parainfectious, 21% associated with multiple sclerosis, 12% related to spinal cord ischemia, and 21% as idiopathic.

  18. Haribhai HC, Bhigjee AI, Bill PL, et al. Spinal cord schistosomiasis. A clinical, laboratory and radiological study, with a note on therapeutic aspects. Brain. 1991;114 ( Pt 2):709-26.  [PMID:2043944]

    Comment: All 13 pts had positive schistosomal blood serology. Eight cases improved with either praziquantel, steroids or surgery.

Last updated: July 13, 2024