Epidemiology of risk factor | Possible infectious agent(s) |
Agammaglobulinemia | |
Age | |
Neonates | Herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, rubella virus, Listeria monocytogenes, Treponema pallidum, Toxoplasma gondii |
Infants and children | Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus (rapid in infants), influenza virus, La Crosse virus |
Elderly persons | Eastern equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, sporadic CJD, L. monocytogenes |
Animal contact | |
Bats | West Nile virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Cryptococcus neoformans (bird droppings), rabies virus. |
Cats | Rabies virus, Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella henselae, T. gondii |
Dogs | |
Horses | Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Hendra virus |
Old World primates | |
Rodents | Eastern equine encephalitis virus (South America), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Powassan virus (woodchucks), La Crosse virus (chipmunks and squirrels), Bartonella quintana |
Sheep and goats | |
Skunks | |
Swine | Japanese encephalitis virus, Nipah virus |
White-tailed deer seen, potential for tick exposure | Borrelia burgdorferi(rare) Borrelia miyamotoi(mostly described in the immunosuppressed) |
Immunocompromised persons | Varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus, human herpesvirus 6, West Nile virus, HIV, JC virus, L. monocytogenes, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, C. neoformans, Coccidioides species, Histoplasma capsulatum, T. gondii |
Ingestion items | |
Raw or partially cooked meat | |
Raw meat, fish, or reptiles | |
Unpasteurized milk | Tick-borne encephalitis virus, L. monocytogenes, C. burnetii |
Insect contact | |
Mosquitoes | Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, La Crosse virus, Plasmodium falciparum |
Sandflies | |
Ticks | Tick-borne encephalitis virus, Powassan virus, Rickettsia rickettsii, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, C. burnetii (rare), B. burgdorferi |
Tsetse flies | Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense |
Occupation | |
Exposure to animals | Rabies virus, C. burnetii, Bartonella species |
Exposure to horses | Hendra virus |
Exposure to Old World primates | |
Physicians and healthcare workers | Varicella zoster virus, HIV, influenza virus, measles virus, M. tuberculosis |
Veterinarians | Rabies virus, Bartonella species, C. burnetii |
Person-to-person transmission | Herpes simplex virus (neonatal), varicella-zoster virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (rare), poliovirus, nonpolio enteroviruses, measles virus, Nipah virus, mumps virus, rubella virus, Epstein-Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6, B virus, West Nile virus (transfusion, transplantation, breastfeeding), HIV, rabies virus (transplantation), influenza virus, M. pneumoniae, M. tuberculosis, T. pallidum |
Recent vaccination | Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis |
Recreational activities | |
Camping/hunting | All agents transmitted by mosquitoes and ticks (see above) |
Sexual contact | |
Spelunking | |
Swimming | |
Season | |
Late summer/early fall | All agents transmitted by mosquitoes and ticks (see above), enteroviruses |
Winter | |
Transfusion and transplantation | Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, West Nile virus, HIV, tick-borne encephalitis virus, rabies virus, iatrogenic CJD, T. pallidum, A. phagocytophilum, R. rickettsii, C. neoformans, Coccidioidesspecies, H. capsulatum, T. gondii |
Travel | |
Africa | Rabies virus, West Nile virus, P. falciparum, T. brucei gambiense, T. brucei rhodesiense |
Australia | Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Hendra virus |
Central America | Rabies virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, R. rickettsii, P. falciparum, Taenia solium |
Europe | West Nile virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus,A. phagocytophilum, B. burgdorferi |
India, Nepal | Bihar encephalitis (unknown cause in lychee-fruit growing areas) |
Middle East | |
Russia | |
South America | Rabies virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, R. rickettsii, B. bacilliformis(Andes mountains), P. falciparum, T. solium |
Southeast Asia, China, Pacific Rim | Japanese encephalitis virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Nipah virus, P. falciparum, Gnathostomaspecies, T. solium |
Unvaccinated status | Varicella zoster virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, poliovirus, measles virus, mumps virus, rubella virus |
Drug | Recommendation |
It is always indicated in suspected encephalitis cases until a PCR study or an excellent alternative diagnostic explanation comfortably rules out HSV. | |
Meropenem and imipenem are bactericidal for listeria and may be considered alternatives when ampicillin, penicillin, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole are not tolerated. These drugs are virtually untested clinically; however, meropenem appears to have less potential to lower the seizure threshold and is thus the favored carbapenem for treating CNS infections. | |
Use should be considered for patients with a potential risk for tick-borne infections such as RMSF and other rickettsial-type infections, including Ehrlichia. |
Pathogen | First-Line Agent | Second-Line Agent |
IV Acyclovir | ||
IV Acyclovir | ||
HAART | ||
Nipah virus | ||
St Louis encephalitis virus | IFN-2 alpha | |
Doxycycline or azithromycin +/- rifampin | ||
Ampicillin, penicillin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, vancomycin or meropenem +/- gentamicin | ||
Doxycycline | ||
see module | ||
TMP-SMX | ||
Baylisascaris procyonis | Albendazole + diethylcarbamazine | |
Gnathostoma species | Albendazole | |
Albendazole + corticosteroids |
Comment: A comprehensive review from an ID perspective also focuses on the range of infections. For example, it is benign, mainly in children (e.g., La Crosse), to devastating (rabies, ~100% mortality). Diagnosis and management were discussed, along with when to proceed to brain biopsy or NGS testing. The review excludes causes in children < 6 months of age.
Comment: Helpful guidance that sets priorities including the definition of encephalitis as well as suggested diagnostic algorithm.
Comment: Study of 287 children in Australia found the following causes of encephalitis in confirmed cases: 57% (95% confidence interval [CI], 52%-63%) had infectious causes, 10% enterovirus, 10% parechovirus, 8% bacterial meningoencephalitis, 6% influenza, 6% herpes simplex virus (HSV), and 6% Mycoplasma pneumoniae; 25% (95% CI, 20%-30%) had immune-mediated encephalitis, 18% acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and 6% anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis; and 17% (95% CI, 13%-21%) had an unknown cause.
Comment: One-year study of 204 pediatric and adult patients with 58 infections in 57 patients (27.9%). Among these 58 infections, metagenomic NGS identified 13 (22%) unidentified by clinical testing at the source hospital. Among the remaining 45 infections (78%), metagenomic NGS made concurrent diagnoses in 19. Of the 26 infections not identified by metagenomic NGS, 11 were diagnosed by serologic testing only, 7 were diagnosed from tissue samples other than CSF, and 8 were negative on metagenomic NGS owing to low titers of pathogens in CSF. A total of 8 of 13 diagnoses made solely by metagenomic NGS had a likely clinical effect, with 7 of 13 guiding treatment.
Comment: A flavivirus that is transmitted by ticks in Europe, Russia and Asia that in countries where the infection is common strategies include the use of a protective vaccine, specific anti-TBEV immunoglobulin for post-exposure prophylaxis (available only in Russia). Unfortunately, uptake of the vaccine is relatively low.
Comment: Helpful review with NMDAR among the most frequently encountered cause of antibody-mediated encephalitis. Many others are listed along with there associations (see Table 1 in this article).
Comment: 24 hospitals in the United Kingdom had the implementation of protocols regarding encephalitis occluding lumbar puncture within 12 hours and instituting acyclovir within 6 hours. The interventions had no benefit obvious compared to control; however, both hospitals added 8.5% improvement compared to preintervention suggesting some spillover of educational aspects
Comment: Guidelines from France, that offer fairly specific management recommendations regarding testing and treatment (lots of "ifs, then."
Comment: More than a primer on an often competing diagnosis under consideration.
Comment: Hepatitis E has been increasingly described as causing a range of neurological problems including Guillain−Barré syndrome (GBS), neuralgic amyotrophy, and encephalitis and/or myelitis. --albeit uncommonly.
Comment: Extra valacyclovir beyond standard IV therapy for 90d appeared to offer no benefit in this RCT of 87 pts.
Comment: Powassan/Deer Tick virus is probably under-recognized. Testing usually needs to be coordinated on CSF or serum through the local health department.
Comment: Search for relevant literature yielded 67 studies with findings of muscle weakness, memory loss, and difficulties with activities of daily living among the most common physical, cognitive, and functional sequelae, respectively/ Increased risks of significant sequelae were seen in older men with underlying illnesses such as cardiovascular disease or cancer.
Comment: In the California Encephalitis Project study, anti-NMDAR encephalitis proved to be the cause of encephalitis that was 4x more frequent then other causes often diagnosed by infectious diseases physician such as herpes simplex virus, West Nile virus were varicella zoster virus.
Rating: Important
Comment: Phase I and IIa studies have interesting PK/PD information regarding ribavirin; however, this available data does not suggest benefit and treatment of LaCrosse encephalitis.
Comment: An interesting study that suggests high-dose valacyclovir (1000 mg three times daily) achieves suitable CSF levels and may be an option in resource-limited countries where parenteral acyclovir here may not be feasible.
Comment: Authors examine literature and suggest that many cases of encephalitis without defined etiology may have an explanation (infectious or auto-immune) and therefore continued efforts are needed to understand causes.
Comment: NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor antibody encephalitis is an autoimmune disorder that can present acutely and be confused with viral meningitis. CSF pleocytosis and elevated protein levels exist for both the autoimmune and the infectious categories.
This entity primarily afflicts children, teens, or young adults often with very prominent psychiatric features. Some may have autonomic dysfunction leading to the concern of rabies.
Rating: Important
Comment: A longitudinal cohort of 156 pts. Most recovered both mental and physical function by 1 year after infection onset. The presence of comorbid conditions was associated with a slower recovery. Depression, fatigue and mood issues did not seem to persist longer in the group with more severe, neuroinvasive disease.
Comment: This is the first comprehensive guideline ever published for encephalitis. The document has extensive information that helps the clinician regarding signs, symptoms, epidemiological risks and diagnostic approaches. It still retains much useful information despite its age. See Bloch’s 2023 article for an updated perspective.
Comment: Subset of WNV encephalitis patients have unresolved neurological sequelae.
Comment: Trial looking at a next-generation inactivated JEV vaccine that avoids the issues known to the currently licensed, mouse-brain-derived vaccine. The new vaccine provided 98% seroconversion (compared to the current 95%) and had a good side effect profile.
Comment: Study investigating the spectrum of illness associated with herpes simplex infection, as established by PCR assay. Atypical cases were found, including brainstem encephalitis, chronic encephalitis, and milder forms of encephalitis that were poorly appreciated in the era in which brain biopsy was necessary for diagnosis.
Comment: Study establishing PCR detection of HSV DNA as the standard for diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis.
Comment: While the outcome of VZV meningoencephalitis in immunocompetent patients is generally favorable, reports indicate patients with HIV infection may have worse outcomes. These 4 patients appeared to benefit from IV acyclovir or ganciclovir given for 10-14 days.
Comment: Review of the literature available for this rare manifestation of listerial infection. Early treatment with ampicillin or penicillin was associated with > 70% survival. Limited data available for alternative therapies, although trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole was used successfully.
Comment: Study of 432 patients who underwent brain biopsy for presumed HSV encephalitis. 45% had HSV, but 9% (16% of those without HSV) had other treatable etiologies. In cases in which the diagnosis cannot be made non-invasively, the yield for brain biopsy would appear to outweigh the risks, particularly in immunocompromised patients.
Comment: Basis of the recommendations for treatment courses of 14-21 days with IV acyclovir.
Comment: One of two controlled trials showing a beneficial effect of acyclovir over vidarabine on mortality.
Comment: Update on the outbreak of arboviral encephalitis that affected 56 patients, with 7 deaths. This was the North American debut for this flavivirus, which is transmitted within the avian population.
Comment: Presentation and discussion of acute encephalopathy associated with acute HIV infection (seroconversion). This form of encephalopathy may be severe but typically has onset and resolution within one week. It is surely under-recognized. The diagnosis may require viral load testing, as serological testing may be negative or indeterminate.